A Traveller’s Library: Some Notes on the Book
Collection of J. F. Usko (1760-1841), Traveller,
Orientalist and Lutheran Chaplain at Smyrna
[This essay is a revised
version of a talk given at the conference “The
Adventure of Human Curiosity: Travel from
Antiquity to Modern Recreation” held at the
Onassis Cultural Centre, Athens, on 23 September
2013. I would like to express my warmest thanks to
the organizing committee for inviting me to speak
at the conference, as well as to Professor Ilia
Chatzipanagioti-Sangmeister, for first introducing
me to Usko and his travels. The essay presents the
preliminary findings of a larger research project
on the life, writings and travels of Johann
Friedrich Usko. I would like to thank The
Scouloudi Foundation, Institute of Historical
Research, University of London, for the award a
“Small Grant in Aid of Research”, which made much
of the archival research presented here
possible.]
To some
kind of men it is an extraordinary delight to
study, to looke vpon a Geographicall mappe, and to
behold, as it were, all the remote Provinces,
Townes, Citties of the world, and never to goe
forth of the limits of his
study.
Robert Burton, 1621
[1]
On Friday, March 18, 1842 a notice was placed in
The Times announcing the
beginning of a six-day sale of a private library
to be held by “Mr Hodgson at his great Room, 192,
Fleet Street, corner of Chancery Lane.” The
library, consisting mainly of “Divinity and
Oriental Literature”, had been the property of the
late “Rev.John Frederick Usko, Rector of Orsett,
Essex, and formerly Chaplain at Smyrna” and was
now put up for auction by “order of the
Executor.”
[2] The sales
catalogue, which had begun circulating about five
weeks prior to the auction, listed 1,916 lots,
amounting to an estimated 5,500 titles: this was a
substantial library, particularly rich in early
printed Bibles, “lexicons, dictionaries and
grammars, oriental manuscripts and printed books”
as well as books on English and German philosophy,
history, geography and travel.
[3]
The sale of the Reverend’s library came just over
a month after the dispersal of his household
furniture and goods, which were auctioned at “the
Rectory House, Orsett” by the local firm of
William Jeffries, on January 25-27, 1842.The
brief notice that was placed in the
Essex Standard, and General Advertiser
for the Eastern Counties on January 21,
1842 lists some of the most precious objects that
made up the rector’s comfortable household: “lofty
mahogany 4-post and other bedsteads … Turkey and
Brussel carpets … a grand piano-forte … several
German clocks in good repair … capital chest of
drawers, mahogany secretary bookcase” and “a pair
of full size globes”,
[4] commonly used
to “adorn the Libraries of the Curious.”
[5]
More than expensive decorative objects that
supplied the standard furnishings in a gentleman’s
library, status symbols that designated rank and
wealth, the globes we find at Usko’s rectory were
scientific instruments, designed to be used
together with maps and books of travel and
geography. We may, then, imagine the late
incumbent in his library, retracing his steps
through many “remote Provinces, Townes, Cities of
the world”: for he was a man whose curiosity had
taken him far beyond the limits of his private
study. He had set out from his native Prussia at
the age of twenty three, taken up a ministerial
post in the Ottoman city of Smyrna and spent the
greatest part of the next eleven years travelling:
in his own words, he “traversed six times Mount
Lebanon in different directions”, examined the
“difficult entrance of the river Nile described by
Homer”, descended “the famous grotto of
Antiparos”, saw “the delightful environs of
Damietta”, crossed “the dreary desert of Arabia”,
beheld “Palmyra and its surprising and remarkable
ruins”.
[6] His boat had been captured by
pirates in the Adriatic; he had been held prisoner
of war in Corfu; he had narrowly escaped with his
life in Arabia.
[7] And
meanwhile, he never stopped studying: “in
Constantinople … I continued to study more closely
the Turkish language”; “in Ispahan … I studied
more exactly the true Persian language”; “in
Bagdad … I studied under a Persian master, who
knew the Arabic well”; “in Mecca … I studied … the
Arabic language … under the direction of a very
able master … a man of excellent character and
profound knowledge”; “in Bassora … [I] remained
some time, continuing my study of the Persian
language, and especially reading their difficult
manuscripts, under a Persian master”.
[8]
Read together with the narrative of Usko’s
travels, the auction catalogue of his private
library reveals a man whose thirst for adventure
went hand in hand with his thirst for scholarship
and knowledge. In this paper, I would like to
offer a biographical sketch of this virtually
unknown traveller-scholar of the age of the
Enlightenment, guided by the books lining the
walls of his study. To this end, I will isolate a
series of titles from Usko’s collection and
examine them in relation to three documents that
he wrote during his sojourn in Smyrna: a letter to
his employers in Prussia, asking for books to be
sent out to him in his new post (1784); an
application to the Palestine Association, to serve
as an explorer of Syria and Palestine under the
Association’s auspices (1806); and an official
request to the council o f the Levant Company,
asking for books to restock the Library of the
Levant Factory (1805). Taken together, these
documents give us a rare insight into the working
principles behind a traveller’s library.
The Traveller: J. F. Usko (1760-1841)
I fancy … tidings of
Wilbraham, whom his friends thought lost, are
arrived in England … dated from Ispahan. What an
interesting new tour he has made at last! I long
to see him and compare notes. He is in company
with a man I knew at Smyrna—a respectable,
informed man, minister, I think, of the Swedish
Lutheran Church, and speaking, with five or six
other languages, Arabian and Persian. This man had
already travelled on foot through great part of
the country, and was capable of making his way
through any hardship.
John Morritt,
1796
[9]
Johann Friedrich Usko, the “respectable,
informed man” Morritt alludes to in this letter,
was thirty-six years old when he accompanied
Randle Wilbraham in his tour of Persia. He was
born in the small town of Lyck in East Prussia
(modern-day Elk, in Poland) in 1760. At the age of
eighteen he moved to the nearby city of
Königsberg, to enroll at the Albertus Universität,
one of Prussia’s oldest Protestant Universities
and alma mater of Immanuel Kant’s. He attended
classes at the faculty of theology, graduating in
1781.
[10] Usko studied at Königsberg at a
time when Kant was full professor of logic and
metaphysics (1770), served as dean of the school
of philosophy and was elected as one of the
Academic Senate’s permanent members (1780).
[11] Usko’s private library indicates
a deep interest in the works of the German
philosopher, as it includes many of Kant’s
writings, especially those on logic and
metaphysics (lots 187, 338, 742, 821-825, 1098,
1374), as well as translations of Kant’s works in
other European languages dating down to 1836 (lot
1109).
Two years after his graduation, and while
working as a tutor in Königsberg’s
Collegium
Fridericianum , Usko was offered the
position of chaplain to the German Lutheran
community at the Ottoman port city of Smyrna. He
took up his post in August 1783 and was to remain
in Smyrna for the next 24 years, serving
successively the German (1783-1807), English
(1798-1807) and Dutch (1801-1807) communities in
the city.
[12]
Like many other Europeans who took up
ministerial posts in the Levant, Usko used his
time in the East to satisfy his desire to travel:
between 1789 and 1800 he was frequently away from
Smyrna, on a series of long, adventurous, voyages
which took him to the Greek mainland and the
islands of the Greek archipelago; Constantinople
and the coast of Asia Minor; Cyprus, Egypt, Syria
and Palestine; the Arabian Peninsula, and Persia. During his travels he took the opportunity of
buying Oriental manuscripts and collecting
archaeological fragments, which were later
deposited in private and public collections in
Europe.
[13] In the cosmopolitan city of
Smyrna he also developed his prodigious linguistic
talents: in addition to several modern European
languages (German and Polish, French, English,
Dutch, Italian and Modern Greek) he knew classical
Greek and Latin, as well as Turkish, Hebrew,
Persian, Syrian, Arabic, and Chaldaic. By the time
he arrived in England in 1807, he had earned a
wide reputation as an inveterate traveller, a
formidable linguist and a serious Orientalist.
[14] These attributes secured him the
powerful patronage of Beilby Porteus, Lord Bishop
of London, who offered Usko a valuable living in
his diocese, thus ensuring that his protégé could
enjoy stable employment and a life free of
financial constraints, devoted to the study and
elucidation of the Holy Scriptures.
[15]
After his arrival to England Usko became
involved with the work of the British and Foreign
Bible Society, supervising the translation of the
New Testament in Italian published in 1808 (lot
672)
[16] and Greek, published in 1810 (lot
714).
[17] He also advised on the Turkish,
Syriac and Arabic translations (lots 558, 559,
1251, 1541). Finally, in 1814 he edited a
posthumous publication by the oriental scholar
Elizabeth Smith,
A Vocabulary
Hebrew Arabic and Persian , to which he
added his “Praxis on the Arabic Alphabet” (lot
1434).
[18]
Usko’s explorations of the Near and Middle East
were now behind him but his travels did not stop
entirely. Evidence emerging from his private
correspondence, as well as the appearance of a
considerable number of British and European city
guides in his library shelves, attest to travels
in the British Isles, France, Italy and Germany,
all undertaken after his institution to a
parochial English rectory.
[19]
Although an extremely keen traveller, Usko was
a rather reluctant travel-writer. The only full
account of his extensive travels that survives in
his own words is a slim pamphlet, entitled
A Brief Narrative of the Travels and
Literary Life of the Reverend J. F. Usko ,
which was printed privately in London in 1808.
[20] As a travel text, it makes for
rather disappointing reading: Usko’s explorations
and adventures are given in an extremely condensed
form and are presented more or less as a
straightforward itinerary of the places the author
visited during his travels.
[21] In
addition, his own manuscripts and the majority of
his letters are now presumed lost. Among the few
traces left to the modern scholar who wishes to
piece together a fuller picture of the life and
times of this interesting eighteenth century
traveller is the auction catalogue of his library,
to which I will now turn.
“Divinity and Oriental Literature”: The
Catalogue of Usko’s Library
By no means all of the
most important purchases are made on the premises
of a dealer. Catalogues play a far greater part. …
Anyone who buys from catalogues must have flair …
Dates, place names, formats, previous owners,
bindings, and the like: all these details must
tell him something—not as dry, isolated facts, but
as a harmonious whole; from the quality and
intensity of this harmony he must be able to
recognize whether a book is for him or
not.
The catalogue of Usko’s library was compiled by
the auctioneering firm of Hodgson.
[23] Following the standard
conventions of the period, the catalogue
classifies material under format and only records
the most basic information about each entry:
author, title, date of publication. Occasionally
details of the binding and condition of a book are
also recorded but illustrations, maps and plans
included in the volumes are mentioned less
frequently. Like most auction catalogues, it is
also full of lacunae: one would wish to know more,
for example, about the “36 odd volumes” and “36
ditto” (lots 66, 67); the “Oriental documents and
passports. A parcel” (lot 1733); the “Cuttings
from Newspapers. A curious volume” (lot 1569);
“Usko’s Commonplace Book. MS” (lot 1735); or the
contents of the “Eight boxes and trunks” (lot
1914) and the “Ten hampers” (lot 1916) which were
auctioned during the final day of the sale.
[24]
Despite any shortcomings, however, the Hodgson
catalogue remains an extremely important relic, as
it captures the collection of a relatively
unknown, but widely travelled, oriental scholar
just before its dissolution and eventual
dispersal. Reading through it we can discern a
lifetime of collecting books, beginning with
Usko’s years as a student in Prussia and ending
just a year before his death. Textbooks that Usko
used at Königsberg, as well as books for which he
subscribed while a student, were still in his
possession in 1841 (see for example lots 1111,
1782 and 1870). The predominance of good,
multilingual editions of classical Greek and Latin
authors testifies to his wide humanistic training;
his theological training, on the other hand, is
reflected in the abundance of religious works,
tracts, sermons and works of the Church Fathers. His bibliophilic tendencies, combined with his
theological interests, are evident in his
substantial collection of early printed Bibles,
whereas by far the largest section of the library
is devoted to works of oriental scholarship. Among
his collection we also find a great number of
travel and geography books, principally focusing
on areas where Usko himself had lived, worked and
travelled. Finally, Persian, Turkish and Arabic
manuscripts (lots 1690, 1701, 1702, 1716-1718,
1721, 1736 and 1755) and printed volumes (lots
1723, 1724, 1727, 1740-1754) make up a small, but
very important, section of the library.
In his own
Narrative ,
Usko records the pleasure he derived from visiting
monastic libraries and “admiring the beautiful
type of their printed books”; he also tells us
that during his stay in Isfahan he “purchased the
best Persian manuscripts, historical as well as
poetical”, which he later “deposited in the Royal
Library in Berlin”.
[25] Some of
these manuscripts had travelled with him to
Königsberg in 1799, when he visited his former
students, university friends and professors,
including the now aged Immanuel Kant. As something
of a local celebrity, Usko was a frequent dinner
guest in the houses of the various dignitaries and
entertained the assembled parties by talking about
his voyages, displaying Persian miniatures and
reading aloud Persian poetry.
[26] He also
advised on editorial and linguistic matters
respecting Turkish manuscripts.
[27] Indeed, it seems that by that
stage he had satisfied an ardent desire that had
originally set him out on his travels: “Nikolovius
showed me a letter that has arrived from the
Reverend Usko in Smyrna”, records Christian
Puttlich, one of Usko’s former pupils, in his
diary in 1784, “he writes that he is about to set
out for Arabia, to fulfill his great desire to
seek out Arabic manuscripts.”
[28]
“Doch will er darüber nicht klagen …”: The
Letter to the Evangelical Council at Gdansk
Causabon’s edition of
Strabo, reprinted in Amsterdam (1707) was found by
good fortune among my grandfather’s books … such
editions were then unheard of in
Smyrna.
Adamantios Koraes
[29]
When Usko first arrived in Smyrna, in August
1783, he was twenty three years old, an aspiring
Orientalist who had never travelled outside of
East Prussia, or about a hundred kilometers away
from home. We would expect, then, his first
letters from the East to contain some expression
of cultural shock upon the initial encounter with
a civilization he had so far only known from the
safety of a Königsberg library.
[30] But the greatest shock that seems
to have confronted him upon arrival in Smyrna was
his meeting with his own countrymen. In a letter
that Usko wrote to his employers, the Council of
the Evangelical Church at Danzig, Usko mentions
his dismay at the illiteracy of his flock: young
children between the ages of nine and eleven are
not able to read; a schoolteacher, who had come to
Smyrna from Astrakhan, was a drunk and classes
were never held. The situation in their homes in
no better: their mothers cannot read and their
fathers seem entirely uninterested in their
children’s education. The people who make up his
congregation might be good, upright, friendly
folk, but in their company Usko feels lonely and
isolated; he is too poor to take part in the
leisurely country pursuits of the other Europeans;
in short, resources for society and instruction in
Smyrna are limited.
[31] “But he
will not complain about it”, he writes to the
Council, “if only they could send him some
scholarly books”: Basedow’s
Kupferstiche , works by Weisse, Campe and
Raff, as well as works on the manners and customs
of the Eastern peoples, on the Arabic language, on
natural sciences and on philosophy.
[32]
Usko’s request was firmly denied, the young
pastor was severely reprimanded for his
impertinence, and the books he asked for never
reached Smyrna.
[33] The
request, however, allows us to observe Usko’s
profound intellectual isolation, which he attempts
to alleviate through serious study of scholarly
works on the humanistic disciplines he had studied
at Königsberg, as well as through a rigorous and
dynamic revision of the (admittedly, nonexistent)
school curriculum. He names four of the most
prominent leading German educationalists, whose
works we can also trace in Usko’s private library
(e.g.lots 660, 154, 670): the educational
reformer Joachim Basedow;
[34] the
educationalist and linguist Joachim Heinrich
Campe;
[35] Christian Felix Weisse, who is
considered the founder of German children’s
literature and one of the leading representatives
of the German Enlightenment;
[36] and Georg
Christian Raff, author of books on geography and
the natural sciences for young learners.
[37] With his choice of these authors
Usko positions himself firmly within the context
of Enlightenment thinking and indicates his
allegiance with the movement for German
educational reform, which was put forth by Basedow
and his followers and was actively supported by
Immanuel Kant.
[38]
Usko’s verdict on the deplorable state of his
countrymen’s education, as well as on the
shortcomings of Smyrniote society, form an
interesting parallel to the words of one of his
contemporaries, the Greek scholar Adamantios
Koraes. Recalling his youth and early education
Koraes begins by stressing the inadequate cultural
and intellectual life of his native Smyrna and
then records an encounter that brought about a
change in his fortunes: his meeting with Bernard
Keun, a highly erudite member of the Levantine
community.
[39] “The priest
who officiated in the Dutch Chapel”, Koraes
writes,
was a wise, benevolent man, Bernard
Keun. … He was so kindly predisposed towards me
that he invited me to accompany him during his
walks, taught me through conversing with me, lent
me famous Latin authors and frequently left me by
myself in his private library, when he was obliged
to be away from home.
[40] In
the case of Adamantios Koraes, Keun’s library and
enlightened friendship became instrumental in
galvanizing the young Greek’s desire to travel to
Europe, where he was to receive the education he
had wished for and to become the most prominent
intellectual of the Greek Enlightenment. In the
case of Johann Usko, on the other hand, Bernard
Keun’s substantial library and warm companionship
contributed to the young Prussian feeling more at
home in Smyrna. In his subsequent letters to his
employers, Usko excuses himself for his previous
outburst and indicates that he is now much
happier, since he has met the pastor of the Dutch
community, an eminent, respectable and highly
educated man, who shared Usko’s deep interest and
passion for the arts and sciences.
[41] Keun and Usko were bound by a
strong and long-lasting friendship, which only
ended with the older man’s death in 1801. Bernard
Keun became Usko’s mentor and showed his regard
for the younger man in a highly practical manner:
he took over Usko’s congregation, intermittently
for 11 years, to give the aspiring Orientalist the
time and leisure he needed in order to travel and
explore the Middle East.
[42]
“A good key to his Enquiry”: Instructions
for travellers
Since it is almost
impossible to perform anything without
preparation, it is indispensably necessary for a
young gentleman, who desires to travel … to lay in
a certain stock of fundamental knowledge, before
he undertakes the difficult task of travelling to
real advantage.
Leopold Bertchold,
1789
[43]
Bertchold’s
Essay to Direct
and Extend the Inquiries of Patriotic
Travellers (lot 1039) is one of the last
works of the genre of the
ars apodemica , the
methodizing of travel, which developed in Europe
in the sixteenth century and flourished until the
end of the eighteenth.
[44] The
ars apodemica
“codified the cultural patterns of travelling” and
offered its practitioners a systematic way of
seeing the world as well as a structured way of
noting their observations.
[45] These
methodological works stressed the crucial
distinction between true travel (
peregrinari) and
aimless wandering (
vagari) , insisting on the usefulness of
the first and the purposelessness of the
second.
[46] Within this context the true
traveller was made fully aware of the moral and
educational implications of his activity and the
acquisition of “a certain stock of fundamental
knowledge” before a journey, as Bertchold puts it,
was instrumental in furthering his goals.“Without
knowledge”, insists Thomas Palmer, one of the
early exponents of the apodemic tradition, travel
“cannot be performed well” and the traveller, upon
his return, “cometh back like a bodie to a grave
without a soule.”
[47] Extensive
preparation before a voyage, as well as continuous
reading while travelling, are constantly advised:
travelers should “furnish themselves with the best
writers of those parts of the world, where they
intend to go, either to instruct them about those
places before they go, or to carry with them”,
writes Edward Leigh, in his
Gentleman’ Guide , and goes on to provide
travelers with a bibliography of apodemic writings
(pp. 1-2) and an extensive list of works they
should consult, beginning with the itineraries of
the Apostles, continuing with compendia of voyages
like Hakluyt’s and Purchas’s and ending with a
ten-page bibliography of travel accounts (pp. 17-26).
[48] The philosopher Francis Bacon
agrees: a young man setting out to travel should
“carry with him also some card or book, describing
the Countrey where he
Travelleth , which will be a good key to
his Enquiry”.
[49]
A fuller discussion of the
ars apodemica lies
outside the scope of this essay. However, it is
important to note here two of its underlying
assumptions: firstly, that people who set out to
travel have both the leisure and the financial
resources that would allow them to be away from
home for long periods of time; and secondly, that
they also have relatively easy access to
up-to-date information—the most accurate maps, the
most recent geographical books, the best travel
accounts, the most complete and up to date
itineraries. The overriding assumption is that
travellers are men of leisure, who will begin
their journey from somewhere in Western Europe and
thus be able to prepare for their travels within
close proximity to the various thriving European
centers of book and print production.
The history of European travel is full of
examples of such men, but it is also full of
exceptions—and Usko is one of them: he is an
educated European, who comes out of the context of
the
ars
apodemica , but is obliged to work for a
living; he is a European long-term resident
abroad, who begins his journeys from somewhere
other than Western Europe. How is he, then, to
participate in the relatively small, and still
rather exclusive, community of “true” travelers? This is the underlying question he poses in his
application for sponsorship to the Palestine
Association, the document I will consider next.
“Supposing my plan was to be approved …” :
The Letter to the Palestine Association
ordinary travelers
provided with a knowledge of what is wanted might
in time contribute much valuable information; but
… our main reliance must be placed within the
selection of proper persons for this express
purpose.
The Palestine Association,
1805
[51]
By 1805 Usko had already undertaken most of his
travels to the East. Bernard Keun had died in 1801
and this meant that Usko was now the main
Protestant minister at Smyrna and could not be
absent from the city as frequently as before. Although much more restricted in his movements,
however, Usko was still actively looking for
opportunities to go exploring again. One such
opportunity presented itself in the form of a
pamphlet published by the Palestine
Association.
[52] This was a
scholarly society, set up by Sir William Hamilton
in London in March 1805; its founding members
included the traveller John Hawkins and the Levant
Company merchant Edward Lee, both of whom knew
Usko well and could have alerted him to its
foundation.
The Palestine Association was set up with the
expressed purpose of “promoting biblical and
historical knowledge” and believed “that
notwithstanding the learned and laborious
compilations of Adricomius, Ravanelli, Cellarius,
Fuller, and Lightfoot, and the more recent details
of Calmet, Michaelis, Wells, Harmer, Bachiene, and
Ysbrabd van Hamersveld, many of the most important
points are still left unexamined”; it therefore
proposed sending out to Syria and Palestine “a
number of proper persons” rather than “ordinary
travelers” to help it achieve its intended
purpose.
[53] This distinction, between
“proper” and “ordinary” travellers, carries echoes
of the
ars
apodemica --echoes which become more
resonant in the long list of points that the
traveller should observe (ranging from
“astronomical observations” to “observations
relative to the geography and topography”, the
“process of agriculture” and “a list of all the
natural productions”); the implied list of
prerequisite knowledge that he should have in
order to be able “to compose a meteorological
journal … make accurate drawings … write in Arabic
and English characters the name of every town,
village, river, mountain … form an ample
collection of inscriptions, manuscripts and
medals” and “detect the errors of former
travelers”; and, finally, the way he should frame
his observations upon return, “studiously to avoid
all possibility of exciting a suspicion that we
have other ends to serve rather than the mere
promotion of biblical and historical
knowledge.”
[54]
Putting himself forward as a potential explorer
of Syria and Palestine, in his letter Usko
emphasizes the three main attributes that would be
of interest to the Society: his linguistic skills,
his substantial experience of travel to the Holy
Land and his familiarity with the manners and
customs of its inhabitants. In his own
words,
I know the common Arabic language and
the Scriptural one … I am accustomed to the manner
of living in that country, because I have
travelled twice over it, from Damascus to
Jerusalem and Bethlehem, and from Jaffa to
Jerusalem, Nazareth [and] Jordan … and I have
already undertaken many perilous travels, to
Nineveh (Mosul), Babylon; Persepolis; Palmyra;
Syria; Palestine; and Egypt.
[55] His
letter suggests that it is neither the
unfamiliarity of the language, nor of the
environment, nor the dangers of the voyage that
Usko is mostly concerned about: he has “travelled
twice” in the area and will thus be able to take
down all the notes the Society ask for; he knows
“the common Arabic language and the Scriptural
one”, so he will be able to converse with the
local population, as well as note the “names of
towns, rivers and mountains” in English and
Arabic. Two are the main obstacles that he
envisages, however, and both are of a practical
kind.“The greatest difficulty”, he writes, “would
be in my present situation, namely, that I could
not leave my Community without having some other
Protestant Clergyman in my place.”
[56] And, “(supposing my plan was to
be approved)”, he continues, the second, and
equally crucial, difficulty, would be
to
procure those Books that are requisite for further
Researches, p. ex. the Geographical Books I have
got here in my possession: Relandi
Palestina ; Bochart,
Phaleg & Canaan ; Büsching’s
Geography of Palestine ;
besides Strabo and Cellarius; Shaw’s travels;
Harmer in a German translation. But I want Wells;
Bachiene; Michaelis; Harmer in English; Calmet;
Ysbrand van Hamersveld: Geographers mentioned in
the printed exposition of the Palestine
Association.
[57]
It is worth taking a moment to look closely at
the list of authors mentioned by the Palestine
Association and augmented by Usko and to observe
that in both cases travel accounts play only a
secondary role.Early travel books on Palestine,
wrote Edward Robertson in his
Biblical Researches “only repeat each
other and are of little value; as is also the case
with many of the more modern books of
travels.”
[58] Sacred
geography was mostly written by men who were
biblical scholars of immense erudition but had
never travelled to Palestine themselves: like the
Dutch priest Christianus Adrichomius, whose work
Theatrum Terrae Sanctae
includes a geography of the Holy Land, an account
of Jerusalem and maps of Jerusalem and Palestine,
and was first published posthumously in 1590, with
further editions appearing frequently between 1593
and 1722;
[59] the
historian Christoph Keller, or Cellarius, whose
Geographia Antiqua was
published in 1774 and was richly illustrated with
maps of the ancient world;
[60] the English
scholar and preacher Thomas Fuller, whose
A Pisgah-Sight of Palestine came
out in 1650 and contains maps of the Holy Land and
other regions;
[61] the British
Hebraist John Lightfoot, author of several
biblical studies, whose
Opera
Omnia was published in Rotterdam in
1686;
[62] the French professor of
philosophy, Hebrew and theology Augustine Antoine
Calmet, whose
Dictionary of the
Bible was first published in four volumes
between 1720 and 1724;
[63] the English
mathematician and divine Edward Wells, who
published a
Historical Geography
of the New Testament in 1708 and
A Historical Geography of the Old
Testament in 1712;
[64] the Dutch
preacher and astronomer Willem Albert Bachiene,
who published a number of Biblical maps between
1747 and 1774; Ysbrad van Hamersveld, whose work
on the Bible had been published in Amsterdam
relatively recently, in 1790; and, finally, the
German Orientalist Johann David Michaelis, who had
produced a multi-volume, extensively annotated
translation of the New Testament between 1769 and
1785 using material gleaned from the Danish
explorer Carsten Niebuhr, the sole survivor of the
expedition to Arabia (1761-1767) which was hailed
as the model of Enlightened Oriental travel.
[65]
Usko, in turn, inserts a number of other
authors to this list, gently pointing the
Association to some of the most important texts on
Biblical Geography which they had left out and
thus making an added case for himself as a “proper
person” fit to undertake their “expressed
purpose.” His additions indicate that, although
presently located in the periphery, he still has a
good knowledge of the required literature.He
includes Adrian Reland, whose
Palestina ex Monumentis veteribus
illustrata (1714; lot 590) was considered
the standard classic work on Palestine, and
remained unsurpassed until the late nineteenth
century;
[66] the Protestant Orientalist Samuel
Bochart, a scholar whose authority and erudition
were greatly admired during the seventeenth and
eighteenth c enturies: he was the author of the
Geographia Sacra (1646;
lot 1893), a geographical atlas of the Holy Land
and the places visited by the Apostles;
[67] Büsching’s
Erdbeschreibung (1788, 1792; lots 37,
1164), which includes a section on Palestine, and
which was considered to be one of the best
contemporary treatises on the modern geography of
the area;
[68] the ancient
geographer Strabo (1707; lot 1896); and the only
traveller that appears in the list, the chaplain
Thomas Shaw, who had travelled to Palestine during
his 13 year residence in the Levant and whose
Travels or Observations Relating
to several parts of Barbary and the Levant
(1738; lot 240) is notable for the “judicious and
valuable” information the author imparts on the
antiquities, geology and geography of the areas he
visited.
[69]
Once more, Usko’s application was turned down
and the books he asked for were never sent out to
him in Smyrna. He purchased the majority of them
at a later date, however, especially the works of
Michaelis (lots 246, 247, 248, 930, 1304, 1604,
1683, 1841), and we find many of the authors
mentioned by the Palestine Association in his
library catalogue of 1842, now greatly augmented
by a number of important works that had come out
between 1810 and 1840.
In the letter sent to the Palestine Association
we also find the very few books from Usko’s
significant collection whose provenance we can
trace with some certainty. These had come to him
as a bequest from his old friend and mentor
Bernard Keun, who left the remains of his valuable
library, which included the works of Reland,
Bochart and Strabo mentioned above, to his “dear
and esteemed colleague” as “a token of friendship
and respect” in the codicil to his will, dated
Smyrna October 1801.
[70]
“Of use to some instructed traveller”: The
Letter to the Levant Company
‘At last we got there. The Schloss … stood in a clump of trees. Only a
few windows were lit. … I found Baron Schey in his
library in a leather armchair and slippers reading
Marcel
Proust.’
***
The house
had the charm of a large and rambling rectory
occupied by a long line of bookish and well-to-do
incumbents torn between rival passions for field
sports and their libraries. … Except for his own
bedroom and a couple of others in case friends
turned up and the delightful library where I had
found him, most of the rooms had been shut
up.
The library was so crammed that
most of the panelling was hidden and the books, in
German and French and English, had overflowed in
neat piles on the floor. … On the evening I
arrived, Sari laid dinner on a folding table in
the library. When it was cleared away, we went
back to the armchairs and the books with our
brandy glasses and, undeterred by a clock striking
midnight somewhere in the house, talked until
nearly one of clock.
Patrick Leigh
Fermor, 1933/1977
[71]
In
A Time of Gifts ,
one of the most celebrated travel books of the
twentieth century, the mature Patrick Leigh Fermor
(writing in the 1970s) remembers his younger self
(travelling in the 1930s). In this passage we hear
both voices, the older following the younger, the
distance in time indicated by the quotation marks
in the first section and the three asterisks
dividing the two. The younger voice comes across
as firmly rooted in time and place; the retelling,
however, oscillates constantly between Central
Europe and England, between a space travelled
through and home. The “Schloss” is now likened to
“a large and rambling rectory”; the “Baron” to a
“Whig aristocrat” or one in a “long line of
bookish … incumbents”; the “clump of trees” to a
“well-wooded shire.” The library becomes
“delightful” and the lone host is now joined by
the welcome traveller: a second armchair appears
on the scene and conversation takes the place of
solitary reading. The library appears as one of
the few rooms in the dark house that is lit, open,
and thus alive: it is the place where sustenance,
both literal (food and drink) and metaphorical
(books and conversation) is offered to the
traveller. The centrepiece of this passage, the
library is the pulsating heart of this home away
from home.
Usko’s attempt to create a home away from
home—a home housed in a library—is the subject of
the final section of this essay. To this end, I
will look at an official request that he made to
the Council of the Levant factory in London, for
books to restock the Factory’s Library which had
been completely destroyed by fire in 1797.
[72]
In his request to the council of the Levant
Company, Usko proposes a long list of books and
submits an accompanying letter in which he
underlines the books that are “most necessary and
are more requested for the present than the
rest.”
[73] He divides the list into a number
of large thematic categories, beginning with
general and encyclopedic works, moving on to
“Sermons”, “History”, “Philosophy and
Miscellanies”, “Some Fathers of the Church”,
“Greek and Latin authors”, “Some Latin Authors in
usum Delfini ”
and closes with the request for “Some Maps.” It
becomes obvious from his accompanying letter that
he wants to lay the foundations of a growing
library: to bring to Smyrna a core collection of
books that will be enlarged “by degrees” through
“private contributions and gifts of the Gentlemen
of the Factory”.
[74]
Usko begins by asking for specialized texts
that are indispensable for the day-to-day
ministerial functions of a clergyman--sermons,
Bibles, biblical commentaries and texts by the
Church Fathers—as well as religious texts for use
in the Divine service (“La Ste. Bible par
Osterwald in folio (NB to be employed at the
Divine Service)”; “Companion to the Altar. 25
Ex.”).
[75] He also asks for the Quran in
George Sale’s celebrated translation,
[76] works on philosophy (most notably
those of Francis Bacon, David Hume and Leibnitz),
science (Sir Isaac Newton) and history (a section
which not only includes Gibbon on the Roman Empire
and Hume’s
History of
England but also Abbè Barthelemy’s
immensely popular, fictitious travel account
Voyage de jeune Anacharsis en
Grèce (1788)).
[77] But it is
when we look at the various titles of the “Latin
and especially Greek Authors” that he proposes,
that we begin to understand more fully the
multiple uses that he intents the library to have. “The best translations in English and French”, he
writes, will be of great use to members of the
factory and other Smyrna residents, “who would be
able to gain some useful instruction in their
leisure hours, or during the plague, being shut up
in town or in the country.” The classics in their
original language, on the other hand, would be
“necessary and very useful not only for a
clergyman, but also for some instructed traveller,
who comes in this country, which was once the seat
of the sciences … [and] to read them as it were on
their native ground increases the interest and
importance of what they contain.”
[78]
Looking through Usko’s list we can isolate a
few representative cases, which allow us to
observe the working principles behind his
selections.The Greek traveller and geographer
Pausanias, for example, makes an appearance twice:
the “instructed traveller” could read him in Greek
and Latin, either in the 1696 Leipzig edition by
the leading Hellenist Joachim Kuhn
[79] or in the earlier, 1583 Frankfurt
edition, by Xylander, which had been reprinted in
Hamburg in 1613.
[80] The Smyrna
factor, on the other hand, could consult a recent
English translation by Charles Taylor,
[81] which, although “very hasty,
[and] of average quality, sold well.”
[82]
The same applies to the Greek historian
Herodotus: Usko underlines an edition in Greek and
Latin published in 1759-61 by the Glasgow firm of
Foulis,
[83] as well as a recent, and
extremely highly regarded, English translation by
the Reverend Beloe.
[84] For both
travelers and residents alike Usko then proposes a
book which can be read alongside Herodotus’
original text and Beloe’s English translation:
this is
The Geographical System
of Herodotus (lot 1796), by the English
geographer and surveyor James Rennell, a work
which was immediately hailed for its erudition,
became the standard accompanying text to Beloe’s
translation of Herodotus, and was, in fact, used
by Beloe himself in his revisions for the second
edition of his translation.
[85] Two
geographical dictionaries,
The
Bibliotheca Classica, or a classical dictionary of
proper names mentioned in classical
authors ;
[86] and
A New Dictionary of Ancient
Geography , by Charles Pye,
[87] could offer guidance with the
collation of modern and ancient names that readers
would encounter. Finally, in
D’
Anville’s Complete Body of Ancient
Geography , the readers could have the most
highly regarded contemporary maps by the
celebrated French cartographer, whose maps of the
ancient world were based on descriptions given by
the ancient authors.
[88]
The English translations of Pausanias and
Herodotus, as well as most works of the “modern
English and French authors” that Usko proposes,
are included in a section called “Philosophy and
Miscellanies”. This also includes the contemporary
travel and geography books that Usko chooses for
the Smyrna library. Here, again, his choices are
telling.If, in the
Voyage of the
Young Anacharsis , the readers could find a
“vast panorama of ancient Greece” in a work “which
rendered a distant world more palpable and
vivid”
[89] , in Pierre Augustin Guys’s
Voyage littéraire de La Grèce
(1771), the readers could turn to the contemporary
Greeks, and read “that their customs and
traditions embodied the virtues of the
ancients”.
[90] Two further
philhellenic works, William Eton’s the
Survey of the Turkish
Empire ,
[91] and James
Dallaway’s
Constantinople [92] could offer
erudite and well argued statements on the cause
for Greek independence--and, true to the tenets of
an Enlightenment library, which should offer a
well-rounded, varied perspective, they could then
turn to “one of only two books of any consequence
which attacked the philhellenic traditions of the
time”, Cornelius de Pauw’s
Recherches Philosophiques sur les
Grecs .
[93]
Finally, Usko also asks for five expensive,
lavishly illustrated, and immensely highly
regarded works by contemporary travelers.These
are Chandler’s
Ionian Antiquities
(lot 1531), the result of the first Ionian
mission of the Society of Dilettanti, undertaken
in 1764-1766
[94] ; Chandler’s
Inscriptiones Antiquae
(lot 1592), published in 1774, also the
result of the author’s travels to Asia Minor on
behalf of the Society of Dilletanti
[95] ; Stuart and Revett’s
Antiquities of Athens , a
monumental folio, the first book to depict the
Athenian monuments in accurately measured
drawings
[96] ; Norden’s
Antiquities of Egypt (lot 1498), a grand
folio of 162 plates drawn on the spot
[97] and Denon’s equally important
work,
Voyages dans la Basse et la
haute Egypte , which included 108 plates of
the Egyptian monuments.
[98]
With these choices, Usko reveals his preference
for works which are part of an attempt for
“clarity, reliability and precision”; for the
“proto archaeological folios” which “placed
emphasis on objective analysis and transparent
presentation” in both text and image: the
“subjective evocation”
[99] of the
voyage
pittoresque is wholly absent from Usko’s
selections for Smyrna, as it is mostly absent from
his own private library. But it is also important
to observe that all his choices have an extremely
close relationship to the place
where they
will eventually be read . They are all
carefully chosen to guide the readers both in
textual and in visual form through geographical
areas and landscapes they either find themselves
currently in; ones they might have just visited;
or others which might be the next stop of their
voyage when they set out from Smyrna. To remember
Usko’s words from his letter to the Palestine
Association, the books in the Factory Library are
“requisite for further researches”; and to recall
his words in the letter to the Council of the
Levant Company, “their interest and the importance
of what they contain will be increased” by reading
them in Smyrna.
We may conclude that in trying to build a
Smyrna library that would be of use to residents
and travelers alike, Usko is ultimately trying to
build a haven for people like himself: newcomers
to the city, long-term residents in the Levant,
potential explorers of the adjacent territories. In his continuous efforts to bring to Smyrna a
core collection of scholarly books that will
“instruct” the Levantine factor, “interest” the
already “instructed traveller” and aid a scholar’s
“further researches”, he is ultimately trying to
create the context that he would have ideally
found when he first arrived in the city more than
twenty years earlier. The Factory Library becomes
a home away from home; so does his own private
collection of books, which has its foundations in
Prussia of the late 18th century, travels with him
to the Ottoman Empire, is enriched by books
bequeathed to him by his friend and mentor Bernard
Keun (the same books that fired Koraes’ desire to
study in Europe) and finally ends in a “rambling
rectory”, in the English county of Essex,
overflowing with “books in German and French and
English”. Patrick Leigh Fermor was not the only
traveller who recorded his sense of relief,
delight and gratitude for the presence of such
loci . Leafing through Joseph Pitton
de Tournefort’s celebrated
Voyage
to the Levant (1718)—one of the travel
books that Usko underlined as “most necessary” for
his ideal Smyrna Library, and one of the books
that we also find in his own shelves (lot 808)—we
come upon a passage which describes the author’s
sojourn in the house of Mr. Royer, French consul
in Smyrna. Predating Leigh Fermor by about 200
years, Tournefort writes:
We … rested
ourselves some days at M. Royer’s, where we found
every thing we could wish for, to make amends for
what we had undergone in such long journeys; that
is to say, abundance of Good cheer, charming
conversation, all the Gazettes, and a Library.
[100]
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Stagl, Justin. A History
of Curiosity. The Theory of Travel
1550-1800. Chur: Switzerland; Reading:
Harwood Academic, 1995.
Stagl, Justin. “The Methodising of Travel
in the sixteenth century.” History and Anthropology 4 (1990).
308-338.
The Times
[London, England] 18 Mar. 1842
Tobler, Titus. Bibliographia Geographica Palaestinae. Kritische
Uebersicht gedruckter und ungedruckter
Beschreibungen der Reisen ins Heilige
Land. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1867.
Τόλιας, Γ., επιμ.
Ιστορία της
Χαρτογραφίας του Ελληνικού Χώρου, 1420-1800.
Χάρτες της Συλλογής Μαργαρίτας Σαμούρκα. Σύνταξη
Καταλόγου Λεονόρα Ναβάρι. Αθήνα: Ι.Ν.Ε./Ε.Ε.Ε.,
2008.
Usko, Johann Friedrich. Predigt über Ephes. 5, v. 20 am Sonntage Cantate
in der H. Dreyfaltigkeits-Kirche, gehalten von
Johann Friedrich Usko, Pastor der
Deutsch-Evangelisch-Lutherischen Gemeine in
Smyrna. Danzig: J.E.F. Müller,
1799.
Usko, John Frederick. A
Brief Narrative of the Travels and Literary Life
of the Reverend John F. Usko, Chaplain to the
Factory at Smyrna … and now Resident in London.
Written by Himself… London: Printed by
Luke Hansard and Sons, 1808.
Usko, John Frederick. “Letter to the
Palestine Association”. Unpublished. Archives of
the Royal Geographical Society, London.
Wall, Cynthia. The Prose
of Things. Transformations of Description in the
Eighteenth Century. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 2006.
Warda, Arthur. “Aus dem Leben des
Pfarrers Christian Friedrich Puttlich.” Altpreussische Motatsschrift …
Herausgegeben von Rudolf Reicke.
Königsberg: Thomas & Oppermann, 1905.
253-304.
Footnotes
Note 1
Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy, What it is,
with al the kindes, causes, symptomes,
prognostickes, and severall cures of it. …
(Oxford: Henry Cripps, 1621) 351.
Note 2
“Sales by Auction.” The Times [London, England] 18
Mar. 1842: 8. The Times Digital Archive. Web. 17
May 2014.
Note 3
Edmund Hodgson (firm),
Divinity and Oriental Literature.
A Catalogue of the Valuable Library of the Rev.
John Frederick Usko, Rector of Orsett, Essex, and
formerly Chaplain at Smyrna, deceased
(London: Printed by Rayner and Hodges, 1842).
Note 4
The Essex Standard, and General
Advertiser for the Eastern Counties ,
Friday, January 21, 1842; p. [1] ; Issue 578. On
English household auctions and auction catalogues,
see Cynthia Wall, The Prose of
Things. Transformations of Description in the
Eighteenth Century (Chicago and London:
The University of Chicago Press, 2006)
166-176.
Note 5
Thomas Wright, The Use of the Globes , 1740,
qtd. in Miles Ogborn & Charles W. J. Withers,
eds., Georgian geographies:
Essays on space, place and landscape in the
eighteenth century (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2004) 17. Usko’s library
includes another popular manual on the use of the
globes, Daniel Fenning’s A New
and Easy Guide to the Use of the Globes and the
Rudiments of Geography (London: J. Hodges,
1754), (lot 121). Here, and throughout this paper,
all the items from Usko’s collection are indicated
with the number of the lot at auction placed in
parentheses.
Note 6
John F. Usko, A Brief Narrative of the Travels and
Literary Life of the Reverend John F. Usko,
Chaplain to the Factory at Smyrna … and now
Resident in London. Written by Himself
(London: Luke Hansard and Sons, 1808) 12,
8, 14, 9, 20.
Note 7
Usko, 23-24,
20-21.
Note 8
Usko,13, 18, 16, 11,
20.
Note 9
E. G. Marindin, ed., The Letters of B. S. Morritt of Rokeby,
descriptive of Journeys in Europe and Asia Minor
in the Year 1794-1796 (London: John
Murray, 1914) 289-290.
Note 10
Biographical details about
Usko’s life up to 1807 are given by him in his
Narrative . For a brief
outline of the period after 1807, see his
obituary, “Rev. John F. Usko,” The Gentleman's Magazine April 1842:
439-440.
Note 11
Manfred Kuehn, Kant: A Biography (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001) chs.
5-6.
Note 12
See Usko, 6-7; Eduard
Schnaase, Geschichte der
evangelischen Kirche Danzigs (Danzig:
Theodor Bertling, 1863) 675-682; Malte Fuhrmann,
Der Traum von Deutschen Orient:
Zwei deutsche Kolonien im Osmanischen Reich
1851-1918 (Frankfurt am Main: Campus,
2006) 401; J. W. Samberg, De
hollandsche gereformeerde gemmente te Smirna: de
geschiedenis eener handelskerk (Leiden:
Eduard Ijdo, 1928) 201.
Note 13
Usko, 18; Ulrich Jasper
Seetzen, “Fortsetzung der Reise-Nachrichten,”
Monatliche Correspondenz zur
Beförderung der Erd- und Himmels -Kunde 8
(1803) 489-493: 492; Anon., “Nachricht von einigen
merkwürdigen Reisenden, die 1798 in Berlin waren,”
Neue Berlinische
Monatsschrift 1 (1799) 232-244: 238;
Friedrich Münter, Antiquarische
Abhandlungen (Kopenhagen: J. H. Schubothe,
1816)122-123.
Note 14
Jacob Ludwig Salomon
Bartholdy, Voyage en Grèce, fait
dans les années 1803 et 1804 Par J.L.S. Bartholdy.
Traduit de l’ Allemand par A. du C.*** ,
vol. 2 (Paris: Dentu, 1807) 85.
Note 15
Robert Hodgson, The Life of the Right Reverend Beilby
Porteus, D. D. Late Bishop of London , 4th
ed., (London, T. Cadwell and W. Davies, 1813)
233-235.
Note 16
Il Nuovo Testamento del nostro
Signore Gesu Christo (Londra: Nella
Stamperia de’ Henney e Haddon, 1808). On this
translation, see T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule,
Historical Catalogue of the
Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library
of the British and Foreign Bible Society .
In two volumes. Vol. II-Polyglots
and Languages other than English (London:
The Bible House, 1911) 816 (cat. no.
5611).
Note 17
Η Καινή Διαθήκη του Κυρίου και
Σωτήρος ημών Ιησού Χριστού Δίγλωττος. Tουτ’ έστι
Tο Θείον Αρχέτυπον και η αυτού Mετάφρασις Eις
Kοινήν Διάλεκτον. Mετά πολλής επιμελείας
διορθωθέντα, και νεωστί μετατυπωθέντα (Εν
Χελσέα. Εξετυπώθη παρ’ Ιωάννου Τιλλίγγου, 1810).
On this edition, see Φίλιππος Ηλιού, Ελληνική Βιβλιογραφία του 19ου αιώνα,
Τόμος A’, 1800-1818 (Αθήνα: Μουσείο
Μπενάκη & Ε.Λ.Ι.Α/Μ.Ι.Ε.Τ, 2011) cat. no.
1810.26. See also John Owen, The
History of the Origin and First Ten Years of the
British and Foreign Bible Society (London:
Tilling and Hughes, 1816) 391-394; and Darlow and
Moule, 681 (cat. no. 4963).
Note 18
Judith Hawley, ‘Smith,
Elizabeth (1776–1806)’, rev. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ,
Oxford University Press, 2004
[http://0-www.oxforddnb.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/view/article/37978,
accessed 17 May 2014]
Note 19
The auction catalogue
lists a total of 70 guidebooks to various British
and European cities (see lots 1, 32, 35, 45, 46,
55, 163, 164, 365, 535, 619, 665, 668, 686, 715,
721, 989, 1043, 1622, 1652) and makes reference to
numerous other guidebooks, which are not listed
individually.
Note 20
See n. 6, above. Usko also
mentions his travels up to 1798 in his Predigt über Ephes. 5, v. 20 am Sonntage
Cantate in der H. Dreyfaltigkeits-Kirche, gehalten
von Johann Friedrich Usko, Pastor der
Deutsch-Evangelisch-Lutherischen Gemeine in
Smyrna (Danzig: J.E.F. Müller, 1799) 23-26
(lot 1038).
Note 21
For a discussion of the
Narrative and issues of
its production, use and dissemination, see
Μαρία
Κωσταρίδου , “ Η Μετάβαση
του πάστορα Johann Friedrich Usko στη Βρετανία:
ταξιδιωτική γραμματεία και Οριενταλισμός, ”
Ταξίδι, Γραφή, Αναπαράσταση:
Μελέτες για τον 18ο αιώνα . Ilia
Chatzipanagioti-Sangmeister, ed., ( Αθήνα: Πανεπιστημιακές Εκδόσεις
Κρήτης , forthcoming).
Note 22
Walter Benjamin,
“Unpacking my Library. A Talk about Book
Collecting,” Illuminations . Edited and with an
Introduction by Hannah Arendt. Translated by Harry
Zohn (New York: Schocken Books, 1988)
63-64.
Note 23
On Hodgson, see One Hundred Years of Book Auctions
1807-1907. Being a Brief Record of the Firm of
Hodgson and Co . (London: Chiswick Press,
1908).
Note 24
On book auctions and
catalogues, see the papers collected in Robin
Myers and Michael Harris, eds., Property of a Gentleman: The formation,
organisation and dispersal of the private library
1620-1920 (Winchester: St. Paul’s
Bibliographies, 1991); Robin Myers, Michael
Harris, Charles Mandlebrote, eds., Under the Hammer: Book Auctions since
the seventeenth century (New Castle: Oak
Knoll Press; London: The British Library, 2001)
and James Raven, The Business of
Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade
1450-1850 (New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 2007).
Note 25
Usko, 11, 18.
Note 26
See Arthur Warda, “Aus dem
Leben des Pfarrers Christian Friedrich Puttlich,”
Altpreussische Motatsschrift …
Herausgegeben von Rudolf Reicke 42 (1905):
253-304 and Sabina Laetitia Kowalewski/Werner
Stark, eds., Königsberger
Kantiana. Immanuel Kant. Werke: Volksausgabe Bd.
1/hrsg. Von Arnold Kowalewski (Hamburg: F.
Meiner, 2000) 30.
Note 27
“Bücher zu verkaufen,”
Intelligenzblatt der Allgemeinen
Literatur-Zeitung vom Jahre 1799 16 Feb.
1799: 143-144.
Note 28
Warda, 274, n. 1 (“Er
schrieb … dass er nächstens nach Arabien gehen
würde um seine grosse Begierde Arabische
handschriften aufzusuchen befriedigen können.”).
Unless otherwise stated, throughout this paper
translations from languages other than English are
my own.
Note 29
« Ευρέθη
κατά τύχη μεταξύ των βιβλίων του πάππου μου η
μετατυπωθείσα (1707) εις Αστελόδαμον έκδοσις του
Στράβωνος από τον Κασαβώνα … τοιαύται εκδόσεις εις
την Σμύρνην τότε ήσαν από τα
ανήκουστα .»
Αδαμάντιος Κοραής,
Βίος Αδαμαντίου Κοραή συγγραφείς
παρά του ιδίου (Εν Παρισίοις:
Εκ της τυπογραφίας Κ. Εβεράρτου, 1833)
11-12.
Note 30
The original letters are
now presumed lost. They had survived, however,
until the mid-19th century, and selected extracts
were published in Schnaase, 675-682.
Note 31
Schnaase, 679-680.
Note 32
“doch will er darüber
nicht klagen, wenn man ihn nur mit
wissenschaftlichen Schriften versehen wollte”
Schnaase, 680.
Note 33
Schnaase, 681.
Note 34
Otto Friedrich Bollnow,
“Basedow, Johann Bernhard,” Neue
Deutsche Biographie 1 (1953), 618 ff.
[Onlinefassung] ; URL:
http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118653377.html
Note 35
Gottfried Hausmann,
“Campe, Joachim Heinrich” in: Neue Deutsche Biographie 3 (1957),
110-111 [Onlinefassung] ; URL:
http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118518658.html
Note 36
Jacob Minor, “Weiße,
Christian Felix” in: Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographie (1896), 587-590
[Onlinefassung] ; URL:
http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118630563.html?anchor=adb
Note 37
von Binder, “Raff, Georg
Christian” in: Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographie (1888), 158-159
[Onlinefassung] ; URL:
http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116323892.html?anchor=adb
Note 38
G. Felicitas Munzel,
“Kant, Hegel, and the Rise of Pedagogical
Science,” A Companion to the
Philosophy of Education , ed. Randall
Curren (Blackwell, 2003) 118-119.
Note 39
“ Έφριξα όταν εκατάλαβα, πόσα βοηθήματα μ’ έλειπαν
ακόμη δια να καταλαμβάνω με πληροφορίαν τους
ελληνικούς συγγραφείς […] Μόνην παρηγορίαν εύρισκα
το νέον ακόμη της ηλικίας, ήτις μ’ εσυγχώρει να
ανοικοδομήσω οπωσούν την κακοκτισμένην σοφία μου.
Αλλά εις πόλιν, αν και μεγαλόπολιν οποία ήτον η
Σμύρνη τότε, έλειπαν τα μέσα τοιαύτης
ανοικοδομής.» Κοραής, 10.
Note 40
“Ι εράτευε τότε εις τον ναΐσκον του προξένου
(consul) των Ολλανδών ανήρ σοφός, σεβάσμιος και
σεβαστός, Βερνάρδος Κεύνος (Bernhard Keun). ... Η
προς εμέ του εύνοια ηύξησε τόσον, ώστε να με
προσκαλή να τον συνοδεύω εις τους μετά το γεύμα
περιπάτους, να με διδάσκη πάντοτε δια ζώσης φωνής
όσα εγνώριζε χρήσιμα εις την ευδαιμονίαν μου, να
με δανείζει Λατίνους ενδόξους συγγραφείς, και
τέλος να μ’ αφίνη μόνον εις την βιβλιοθήκην του,
οσάκις ηναγκάζετο να διατρίβη έξω της κατοικίας
του ” Κοραής ,
13-14. On Keun and Koraes, see briefly Dirk
Christiaan Hesseling, “Korais et ses amis
hollandais,” Εις Μνήμην
Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου (Αθήνα: n.p., 1935),
1-6; Ν. Κ. Χ. Κωστής, “Βερνάρδος Keun και
Κοραής,” Παρνασσός 16
(1894): 601-612 and Ν. Κ. Χ. Κωστής,
“Συμπληρωτικά τινά περί Βερνάρδου Keun και Κοραή,”
Αρμονία 12 (1900):
729-741.
Note 41
Schnaase, 681.
Note 42
Usko, 8.
Note 43
Leopold Bertchold, An Essay to Direct and Extend the
Inquiries of Patriotic Travellers (London,
1789) 1.
Note 44
See Justin Stagl, A History of Curiosity. The Theory of
Travel 1550-1800 (Chur: Switzerland;
Reading: Harwood Academic, 1995). On Bertchold and
The Patriotic traveller
in particular, see pp. 215-231.
Note 45
Stagl, Curiosity , 51.
Note 46
See Justin Stagl, “The
Methodising of Travel in the sixteenth century,”
History and Anthropology
4 (1990): 308-338 and J. P. Rubies,
“Instructions to Travellers: Teaching the Eye to
See,” History and Anthropology
9, (1996): 139-190.
Note 47
Thomas Palmer, An Essay of the Means how to make our
Traveiles, into forraine Countries, the more
profitable and honourable (London: Mathew
Lownes, 1606) 37.
Note 48
Edward Leigh, The Gentleman’s Guide, in three
discourses. First of Travel, or a Guide for
travelers in foreign parts. Secondly, of Money or
coins. Thirdly, of Measuring the distance between
place and place . (London: n.p., 1680)
26.
Note 49
Francis Bacon, “On
Travel,” The Essays, or Counsels,
Civil and Moral, of Sir Francis Bacon
(London: Printed for H. Herringman, T. Chiswell,
T. Sawbridge and R. Bentley, [1691] ),
63.
Note 51
Palestine Association,
Proposals. It is proposed to
establish a Society for the purpose of promoting
the knowledge of the geography, natural history,
and antiquities of Palestine and its vicinity,
with a view to the illustration of the Holy
Writings (London: n.p., 1805)
8.
Note 52
On the Palestine
Association see Ruth Kark and Haim Goren,
“Pioneering British Exploration and Scriptural
Geography: The Syrian Society/The Palestine
Association,” The Geographical
Journal , 177:3 (2011): 264-274.
Note 53
Palestine Association,
5-8.
Note 54
Palestine Association,
7-11.
Note 55
Usko, “Letter to the
Palestine Association,” f. 1v.
Note 56
Usko, “Letter,” f. 1r.
Note 57
Usko, “Letter,” f. 1v.
Note 58
Edward Robinson, Eli Smith
et. al., Biblical Researches in
Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: a Journal of
Travels in the Years 1838 & 1852 . 2nd
ed., vol. 2 (London: John Murray, 1856)
533.
Note 59
Leonora Navari, Greece and the Levant: The Catalogue of
Henry Myron Blackmer Collection (London:
Maggs, 1989) cat. no. 7; Titus Tobler, Bibliographia Geographica Palaestinae.
Kritische Uebersicht gedruckter und ungedruckter
Beschreibungen der Reisen ins Heilige Land
(Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1867) 209-210; Eran Laor,
Maps of the Holy Land.
Carto-bibliography of Printed Maps ,
1475-1900 (New York: A. R. Liss, c.
1986):173.
Note 60
Γ. Τόλιας , ed.,
Ιστορία της Χαρτογραφίας του
Ελληνικού Χώρου, 1420-1800. Χάρτες της Συλλογής
Μαργαρίτας Σαμούρκα. Σύνταξη Καταλόγου Λεονόρα
Ναβάρι ( Αθήνα : Ι.Ν.Ε./Ε.Ε.Ε., 2008)
459.
Note 61
Laor, 178.
Note 62
Laor, 180.
Note 63
Augustine Antoine Calmet,
Dictionaire Historique, Critique,
Chronologique … de Bible , 4 vols. (Paris,
1720-1724), (lot 207).
Note 64
Laor, 188.
Note 65
Stagl, Curiosity , 270. On Michaelis, see also
Suzanne L. Marchand, German
Orientalism in the Age of Empire. Religion, Race
and Scholarship (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2009) 39-43.
Note 66
Navari, Blackmer , cat. no., 1406.
Note 67
Leonora Navari, Manuscripts and Rare Books 15th-18th
century. From the Collections of the Bank of
Cyprus Cultural Foundation . Nicosia: Bank
of Cyprus Cultural Foundation, 2010, cat. no. 146;
on Bochart see Zur Shalev, Sacred
Words and Worlds: Geography, Religion and
Scholarship, 1550-1700 (Leiden; Boston:
Brill, 2012) ch. 4.
Note 68
Robertson, 554.
Note 69
Navari, Blackmer , cat. no.1533; Laor, 186;
Robertson, 547.
Note 70
Samberg, 177. With many
thanks to Dr. Ben Slot for pointing me to this
reference.
Note 71
Patrick Leigh Fermor,
A Time of Gifts
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977) 252-254.
Note 72
The original document is
kept in the Records of the Levant Company, now at
the National Archives, London (SP105/130, Copies
of Incoming Letters, 1805-1806, ff. 127-131v). It
was published, with an introductory essay, by
Richard Clogg, “The Library of the Levant
Company’s Factory in Smyrna (1805)” Ο Ερανιστής. Νεοελληνικός Διαφωτισμός.
Αφιέρωμα στον Κ. Θ. Δημαρά 11 (1974)
112-124. All quotations are from this
article.
Note 73
Clogg, 115.
Note 74
Clogg, 116.
Note 75
Clogg, 117. La Sainte Bible, qui contenient le Vieux
et le Nouveau Testament, c’ est à dire l’ Ancienne
et la Nouvelle Alliance. Revuë et corrigée sur le
texte hébreu & grec par les pasteurs & les
professeurs de l’ Eglise des Geneve. Avec les
Arguments et les Reflexions sur les chapitres de
l’ Ecriture Sainte & des notes. … Par J. F.
Osterwald. Nouvelle edition, revue, corrigée et
augmentée (A Lausanne: Jean Zimmerli,
1764) and subsequent editions, 1771, 1772 (lot
1065).
Note 76
The Koran Commonly called The
Alcoran of Mohammed, Translated into English
immediately from the Original Arabic; with
Explanatory Notes, taken from the most approved
Commentators. To which is prefixed A Preliminary
Discourse. By George Sale ([London]: Top
of FoPublished by C. Ackers for J. Wilcox, 1734),
(lot 1482).
Note 77
Clogg, 120.
Note 78
Clogg, 116.
Note 79
Παυσανίου της Ελλάδος
Περιήγησις .
Hoc est, Pausaniae
Graeciae Descriptio Accurata, …cum Latina Romuli
Amasaei Interpretatione. Accesserunt Gvl. Xylandri
& Frid. Sylbyrgii Annotationes, ac Novae Notae
Ioachimi Kuhnii ( Lipsiae: Apud Thomas
Fritsch, 1696). See also Navari, Blackmer cat. no., 1273.
Note 80
Clogg, 123. Παυσανίου της Ελλάδος Περιήγησις, hoc
est, Pausaniae accurate Graeciae Descriptio … a
Guilielmo Xylandro Augustano diligenter recognita
… Accesserunt annotationes … nunc vero a Frid.
Sylb. Continuate … (Frankfurt: Andreas
Wechel, 1583). On the editions of Xylander and
Kuhn, see Celine Guilmet, “The Dissemination of
the Periegesis in Print,
16th-17th Centuries,” Following
Pausanias: The Quest for Greek
Antiquity , Maria Georgopoulou, Celine
Guilmet, Yanis A. Pikoulas, Konstantinos Sp.
Staikos, George Tolias, eds. (Athens: Kotinos; New
Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Press, 2007)
91.
Note 81
Charles Taylor, The Description of Greece, by Pausanias.
Translated from the Greek. With notes, in which
much of the Mythology of the Greeks is unfolded
from a Theory which has been for many Ages
unknown. And illustrated with Maps and Views
Elegantly engraved. In three volumes
(London: Printed for R. Faulder, 1794).
Note 82
See Celine Guilmet
“Editions of Pausanias (1792-1889),” Following Pausanias ,
177.
Note 83
Η του Ηροδότου Αλικαρνασσέως
Ιστορία. Herodoti Halicarnaseensis Historia. Ex
Editionis Jacobi Gronovii (Glasgow:
Foulis, 1759-1671), (lot 1442).
Note 84
The History of Herodotus.
Translated from the Greek. With Notes. By the
Reverend William Beloe. In four volumes
(London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby,
1791).
Note 85
James Rennell, The Geographical System of Herodotus,
Examined; and Explained, by a Comparison with
those of Other Ancient Authors, and with Modern
Geography … The whole explained by eleven maps
… (London: n.p., 1800). See also The History of Herodotus, translated
from the Greek, with Notes, by the Reverend
William Beloe. The Second Edition, Corrected and
Revised (London: Luke Hansard, 1806) v.
Note 86
J. Lempriere, The Bibliotheca Classica, or a classical
dictionary of proper names mentioned in classical
authors
… Third edition, greatly
enlarged (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies,
1797).
Note 87
Charles Pye, A New Dictionary of Ancient Geography,
exhibiting the Modern in Addition to the Ancient
Names of Places. Designed for the Use of Schools,
and of those who are reading the classics or other
ancient authors, By Charles Pye (London:
Printed for T. Longman and O. Rees,
Paternoster-Row, 1803).
Note 88
A Complete Body of Ancient
Geography. By Mons. D’ Anville, Member of the
Royal Academy of Belles-Lettres, of the Academy of
Sciences at Petersburg, and Secretary to the Great
Duke of Orleans. In thirteen Plates … The whole
materially improved by inserting the modern names
of the places under the antient (London:
Robert Laurie and James Whittle, 1803). On the
first edition of this work, see Navari, Blackmer , cat. no., 41 (note).
Note 89
Olga Augustinos, French Odysseys: Greece in French Travel
Literature from the Renaissance to the Romantic
Era (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1994) 38.
Note 90
Voyage Littéraire de la Grèce, Ou
Lettres Sur Les Greces, Anciens et Modernes, Avec
un Parallele de leurs mouers… Paris: chez
la Veuve Duchesne, 1771; 2 1776. On Guys, see Augustinos, 148; lIlia
Chatzipanagioti-Sangmeister, Griechenland, Zypern, Balkan und Levante. Eine
kommentierte Bibliographie des Reiseliteratur des
18. Jahrhunderts (Eutin: Lumpeter &
Lasel, 2006) cat. nos. 385-392; Navari, Blackmer cat. no., 769
(note).
Note 91
A Survey of the Turkish Empire. …
By W. Eton Esq.; Many Years Resident in Turkey and
in Russia . London: Printed for T. Cadell,
jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. On Eton, see
Navari, Blackmer , cat.
no. 558 and Chatzipanagioti-Sangmeister, op. cit.,
cat. nos. 312-320.
Note 92
Constantinople Ancient and
Modern, with excursions to the Shores and Islands
of the Archipelago and to the Troad. By James
Dallaway, M.B. F.S.A. late Chaplain and Physician
of the British Embassy to the Porte .
London: Printed by T. Bensley, for T. Cadell &
W. Davies, in the Strand, 1797. On Dallaway see
Navari, Blackmer cat. no,
441 and Chatzipanagioti-Sangmeister, op. cit.,
cat. nos. 269-274.
Note 93
William St. Clair. That Greece might still be free: the
Philhellenes in the War of Independence. New
edition, with an introduction by Roderick
Beaton . Cambridge: New Book, c. 2008, p.
379.
Note 94
Ionian Antiquities. Published,
with Permission of The Society of
Dilettanti , 2 vols (London 1769-1797). On
the publishing history of this work, see Navari,
Blackmer , cat. no.
1566.
Note 95
Inscriptiones Antiquae, Pleraeque
nondum editae: in Asia Minori et Graecia …
Ediditque Ricardus Chandler … (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1774). See Navari, Blackmer, cat.
no. 317.
Note 96
The Antiquities of Athens
Measured and Delineated by James Stuart F.R.S. and
F.S.A. and Nicholas Revett, Painters and
Architects . (London, 1762-1787) See
Navari, Blackmer, cat. no. 1617.
Note 97
Travels in Egypt and Nubia. By
Frederick Lewis Norden, F.R.S. Captain of the
Danish Navy. Translated by the original … and
enlarged with observations from ancient and modern
authors, that have written on the antiquities of
Egypt, by Dr. Peter Templeman (London:
Printed for Lockyer Davis and Charles Reymers,
1757). See also Navari, Blackmer , cat. no. 1211.
Note 98
Voyage dans la basse et la haute
Égypte pendant les campagnes du Général Bonaparte.
Par Vivant Denon (A Paris: De l’
imprimerie de P. Didot L’ Aine, 1802). See also
Navari, Blackmer , cat.
no. 471.
Note 99
Bruce Redford, Dilettanti. The Antic and the Antique in
Eighteenth-Century England (Los Angeles:
The J. Paul Getty Museum; The Getty Research
Institute, 2008) 11, 44, 11.
Note 100
Joseph Pitton de
Tournefort, Voyage to the
Levant (London: Printed for D. Browne,
1718) 337.